Theo Todman's Web Page - Notes Pages

Personal Identity

Life

(Text as at 30/11/2019 22:58:05)

(For earlier versions of this Note, see the table at the end)

Plug Note¹

• There are (at least) two sub-topics that fall under this topic:-
  • Lives: Life as an (extended) event – the career of an individual.
  • Life: Life as a biological process.
• I assume that lives can be had by individuals that do not have (biological) life, but think it unhelpful to talk of non-biological individuals as “alive”, except in a figurative sense.
• Life – and its correlate, death² – is a biological process, on which the word of the biologist (maybe as clarified by the philosopher) is final.
• I’m open to the idea that alternative biologies – other than the carbon-based exemplar ubiquitous on earth – are possible – or at least conceivable. So, anything sufficiently complex that “can extract energy from its environment, grow, repair damage to its body, and reproduce₃” is alive (Elliott Sober). We wouldn’t want to deny that aliens are alive, nor sufficiently complex machines of the far future.
• What I object is the notion that computer programmes are – or will eventually be – “alive” in the same sense as organisms are alive, though their hosting computers might be₄.
• "Tegmark (Max) - Life 3.0: Being Human in the Age of Artificial Intelligence" has – as is indicated by the book’s title – three versions of life:-
  1. Life 1.0: Biological Evolution – no hardware or software change within a lifetime.
  2. Life 2.0: Cultural Evolution – software, but not hardware, change within a lifetime. Learning.
  3. Life 3.0: Technological Evolution – potential for both software and hardware change within a lifetime.
• "Al-Khalili (Jim) & McFadden (Johnjoe) - Life on the Edge: The Coming of Age of Quantum Biology" has recently raised the question whether quantum phenomena₅ are essential to life.
• So, interesting philosophical questions about Life include:-
  • Just what is (biological) life?
  • When does biological life begin? This is presumably an empirical question, the answer to which will vary from species to species.
  • Are there borderline cases of life?
  • When does life cease? Again, the answer to this question will be species-dependent.
  • Can life intermit⁶? Does it make sense to say that so-and-so died (on the operating table, say) and then revived?
• Interesting philosophical questions about Lives include:-
  • How are lives individuated?
  • What sort of things can have lives?
  • How closely coupled is the life of a human organism⁷ with the life of a human person⁸?
  • Can a life lived courtesy of a human organism be continued after the death of that organism?
• A starting point for Life is "Wilson (Jack) - Biological Individuality - The identity and Persistence of Living Entities".
• Similarly, for Lives: "Wollheim (Richard) - Living", from "Wollheim (Richard) - The Thread of Life".
• For a discussion of the possibility of Life after Death, see this Note⁹.
• Works on this topic that I’ve actually read¹⁰, include the following:-
  1. "Baker (Lynne Rudder) - When Do Persons Begin and End?", Baker
  2. "Dyson (Freeman) - Origins of Life", Dyson
  3. "Feldman (Fred) - Life-Functional Theories of Life", Feldman
  4. "Feldman (Fred) - Vitalist Theories of Life", Feldman
  5. "Kazez (Jean) - Life Doesn't Begin at Conception", Kazez
  6. "McFadden (Johnjoe) - Life is quantum", McFadden
  7. "Pross (Addy) - What is Life?: How Chemistry Becomes Biology", Pross
  8. "Ruse (Michael) - Does life have a purpose?", Ruse
  9. "Skillings (Derek J.) - Life is not easily bounded", Skillings
  10. "Wilson (Jack) - Biological Individuality - The identity and Persistence of Living Entities", Wilson
  11. "Wollheim (Richard) - Living", Wollheim
• A reading list (where not covered elsewhere) might start with:-
  1. "Agar (Nicholas) - Biocentrism and the Concept of Life", Agar
  2. "Al-Khalili (Jim) & McFadden (Johnjoe) - Life on the Edge: The Coming of Age of Quantum Biology", Al-Khalili & McFadden
  3. "Archard (David) - Procreating", Archard
  4. "Baker (Lynne Rudder) - On the Very Idea of a Form of Life", Baker
  5. "Bedau (Mark A.) - The Nature of Life", Bedau
  6. "Bedau (Mark A.) - The Nature of Life", Bedau₁₁
  7. "Butler (J.A.V.) - The Life Process", Butler₁₂
  8. "Difrisco (James) & Mossio (Matteo) - Diachronic Identity in Complex Life Cycles: An Organizational Perspective", Difrisco
  9. "Dupre (John) & O'Malley (Maureen A.) - Varieties of Living Things: Life at the Intersection of Lineage and Metabolism", Dupre
  10. "Emilsson (Eyjolfur K.) - On the Length of a Good Life", Emilsson
  11. "Frossard (Philippe) - The Lottery of Life: The New Genetics and the Future of Mankind", Frossard
  12. "Grobstein (Clifford) - The Strategy of Life", Grobstein₁₃
  13. "Jevons (F.R.) - The Biochemical Approach to Life", Jevons₁₄₌₁₃
  14. "Lemos (Noah) - Assessing Lives", Lemos
  15. "Levy (Steven) - Artificial Life: The Quest for a New Creation", Levy
  16. "Luper (Steven) - Life's Meaning", Luper
  17. "Oderberg (David) - Synthetic Life and the Bruteness of Immanent Causation", Oderberg
  18. "Schrodinger (Erwin) - What is Life?", Schrodinger
  19. "Tegmark (Max) - Life 3.0: Being Human in the Age of Artificial Intelligence", Tegmark
  20. "Wilson (Edward O.) - The Diversity of Life", Wilson
  21. "Wollheim (Richard) - The Thread of Life", Wollheim
• This is mostly a place-holder¹⁵.

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In-Page Footnotes:

Footnote 3:

• At most, this must be “typical representatives” – else the infertile would not be alive.
• But – important though reproduction is for evolution – I’m not sure why this is essential.
• Note that computer hardware is unlikely to reproduce – or at least it’s not necessary that they should, as they can be manufactured – but that computer programmes would be able to – this seems to be claimed of AIs, who are hoped to be able to produce improved versions of themselves.

Footnote 4:

• I say this by analogy with my thoughts on the consciousness of computer programs.
• However, I’m not sure the analogy works, as the “living” is said to be at the program level, and not to involve any physical changes to the computer (other than the usual changes to the contents of memory locations).

Footnote 5:

• This is another parallel with speculation on Consciousness.

Footnote 11: Not the same as the above paper!

Footnote 12: Hailing from 1970, this book is dated, and might only be used as background for the thoughts of philosophers writing about this time.

Footnotes 13, 14: Another very dated book.

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Printable Versions:

• Follow (this link) for level 0 (with reading list), and
• Follow (this link) for level 0.

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Table of the Previous 4 Versions of this Note:

Date	Length	Title
12/06/2019 11:34:05	3860	Life
11/03/2018 20:19:41	3214	Life
04/07/2014 22:46:34	1674	Life
18/12/2010 19:58:05	89	Life

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Note last updated	Reading List for this Topic	Parent Topic
30/11/2019 22:58:05	Life	Person

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Summary of Note Links from this Page

Awaiting Attention (Personal Identity)	Consciousness	Death	Intermittent Objects	Life After Death
Organisms	Person	Plug Note Apologia	Works Read - Explanation

To access information, click on one of the links in the table above.

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Summary of Note Links to this Page

Aeon Papers, 2	Aeon Papers - Summary Document: 2017-2018	Animation	Biological Criterion	Death
Johnston - Human Beings	Organisms	Process Metaphysics	Psychological View	Status: Personal Identity (2019 - December)
Status: Priority Task List (2020: February)	Status: Summary (2019 - December)	Thesis - Chapter 06 (Animalism and Arguments for It)	Thesis - Chapter 11 (Resurrection)	Thesis - Current Stance

To access information, click on one of the links in the table above.

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Authors, Books & Papers Citing this Note

Author	Title	Medium	Extra Links	Read?
Baker (Lynne Rudder)	When Do Persons Begin and End?	Paper		Yes
Feldman (Fred)	Life-Functional Theories of Life	Paper		Yes
Hershenov (David)	Review of Nancy Murphy's 'Bodies and Souls, or Spirited Bodies?'	Paper		Yes
Johnston (Mark)	Human Beings	Paper		Yes
Johnston (Mark)	Is Heaven a Place We Can Get To?	Paper
Kaufman (Sharon)	Neither person nor cadaver	Paper		Yes
Pross (Addy)	What Is Life?	Paper		Yes
Shipley (G.J.)	Review of Andy Clark's 'Natural-Born Cyborgs'	Paper		Yes
Todman (Theo)	Thesis - Animation	Paper		Yes
Todman (Theo)	Thesis - Biological Criterion	Paper		Yes
Todman (Theo)	Thesis - Chapter 06 (Animalism and Arguments for It)	Paper		Yes
Todman (Theo)	Thesis - Chapter 11 (Resurrection)	Paper		Yes
Todman (Theo)	Thesis - Current Position	Paper		Yes
Todman (Theo)	Thesis - Death	Paper		Yes
Todman (Theo)	Thesis - Life	Paper		Yes
Todman (Theo)	Thesis - Organisms	Paper		Yes
Todman (Theo)	Thesis - Process Metaphysics	Paper		Yes
Todman (Theo)	Thesis - Psychological View	Paper		Yes
Wilson (Jack)	Beyond Horses and Oak Trees: A New Theory of Individuation for Living Entities	Paper	2	Yes

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References & Reading List

Author	Title	Medium	Source	Read?
Agar (Nicholas)	Biocentrism and the Concept of Life	Paper - Cited	Ethics, Vol. 108, No. 1 (Oct., 1997), pp. 147-168	11%
Al-Khalili (Jim) & McFadden (Johnjoe)	Life on the Edge: The Coming of Age of Quantum Biology	Book - Cited	Al-Khalili (Jim) & McFadden (Johnjoe) - Life on the Edge: The Coming of Age of Quantum Biology	14%
Archard (David)	Procreating	Paper - Cited	Luper - The Cambridge Companion to Life and Death, 2014, Chapter 14	8%
Atkinson (Basil F.C.)	Life and Immortality: An Examination of the Nature and Meaning of Life and Death as they are revealed in the Scriptures	Book - Referenced	Atkinson (Basil F.C.) - Life and Immortality: An Examination of the Nature and Meaning of Life and Death as they are revealed in the Scriptures	Yes
Baker (Lynne Rudder)	On the Very Idea of a Form of Life	Paper - Cited	Inquiry, 27:277–89, 1984	12%
Baker (Lynne Rudder)	When Do Persons Begin and End?	Paper - Cited	Distinguished Faculty Lecture, December 5, 2005	Yes
Baker (Lynne Rudder)	When Do Persons Begin and End?	Paper - Referencing	Distinguished Faculty Lecture, December 5, 2005	Yes
Bedau (Mark A.)	The Nature of Life	Paper - Cited	Luper - The Cambridge Companion to Life and Death, 2014, Chapter 1	6%
Bedau (Mark A.)	The Nature of Life	Paper - Cited	Margaret Boden, ed., 1996, The Philosophy of Artificial Life (Oxford University Press), pp. 332-357	No
Borgonie (Gaetan) & Lau (Maggie)	Life goes deeper	Paper - By Subtopic	Aeon, 24 November, 2017	Yes
Brody (Baruch)	Abortion and the Sanctity of Human Life : a Philosophical View	Book - By Subtopic	Brody (Baruch) - Abortion and the Sanctity of Human Life : a Philosophical View	5%
Butler (J.A.V.)	The Life Process	Book - Cited	Butler (J.A.V.) - The Life Process	No
Cairns-Smith (A.G.)	Seven Clues to the Origin of Life - A Scientific Detective Story	Book - By Subtopic	Cairns-Smith (A.G.) - Seven Clues to the Origin of Life - A Scientific Detective Story	Yes
Cairns-Smith (A.G.)	Summing up: The Seven Clues	Paper - By Subtopic	Cairns-Smith - Seven Clues to the Origin of Life - A Scientific Detective Story	Yes
Cairns-Smith (A.G.)	The Life Puzzle - On Crystals and Organisms and on the Possibility of a Crystal as an Ancestor	Book - By Subtopic	Cairns-Smith (A.G.) - The Life Puzzle - On Crystals and Organisms and on the Possibility of a Crystal as an Ancestor	2%
CIBA Foundation	Human Embryo Research: Yes or No?	Book - By Subtopic	CIBA Foundation - Human Embryo Research: Yes or No?	No
Davies (Paul C.W.)	The Fifth Miracle: Search for the Origins of Life	Book - By Subtopic	Davies (Paul C.W.) - The Fifth Miracle: Search for the Origins of Life	10%
Difrisco (James) & Mossio (Matteo)	Diachronic Identity in Complex Life Cycles: An Organizational Perspective	Paper - Cited	Dupré, J. (ed.): Biological Identity: Perspectives from Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Biology, (History and Philosophy of Biology), Routledge, In press.	11%
Dupre (John) & O'Malley (Maureen A.)	Varieties of Living Things: Life at the Intersection of Lineage and Metabolism	Paper - Cited	Philosophy and Theoretical Biology (2009) 1:e003	No
Dyson (Freeman)	Origins of Life	Book - Cited	Dyson (Freeman) - Origins of Life	Yes
Emilsson (Eyjolfur K.)	On the Length of a Good Life	Paper - Cited	Luper - The Cambridge Companion to Life and Death, 2014, Chapter 7	8%
England (Jeremy)	Why trees don’t ungrow	Paper - By Subtopic	Aeon, 01 November, 2017	Yes
Erber (Joan T.) & Szuchman (Lenore T.)	Great Myths of Aging	Book - By Subtopic (via Paper By Subtopic)	Erber (Joan T.) & Szuchman (Lenore T.) - Great Myths of Aging	24%
Erber (Joan T.) & Szuchman (Lenore T.)	Great Myths of Aging: Living Contexts	Paper - By Subtopic	Erber (Joan T.) & Szuchman (Lenore T.) - Great Myths of Aging, Chapter 4	14%
Feldman (Fred)	Confrontations with the Reaper: A Philosophical Study of the Nature and Value of Death	Book - Cited (via Paper Cited)	Bibliographical details to be supplied	Yes
Feldman (Fred)	Confrontations with the Reaper: A Philosophical Study of the Nature and Value of Death	Book - Referencing (via Paper Referencing)	Bibliographical details to be supplied	Yes
Feldman (Fred)	Life-Functional Theories of Life	Paper - Cited	Feldman - Confrontations with the Reaper, Chapter 2	Yes
Feldman (Fred)	Life-Functional Theories of Life	Paper - Referencing	Feldman - Confrontations with the Reaper, Chapter 2	Yes
Feldman (Fred)	Vitalist Theories of Life	Paper - Cited	Feldman - Confrontations with the Reaper, Chapter 3	Yes
Flitch (Crawford J. E.)	The Tragic Sense of Life: Introductory Essay	Paper - By Subtopic	Unomono (Miguel De) - The Tragic Sense of Life	33%
Frossard (Philippe)	The Lottery of Life: The New Genetics and the Future of Mankind	Book - Cited	Frossard (Philippe) - The Lottery of Life: The New Genetics and the Future of Mankind	No
Gert (Bernard), Lizza (John), Youngner (Stuart) & Chiong (Winston)	Matters of 'Life' and 'Death'	Paper - By Subtopic	The Hastings Center Report, Vol. 36, No. 3 (May - Jun., 2006), pp. 4-6	Yes
Grobstein (Clifford)	Science and the Unborn: Choosing Human Futures	Book - By Subtopic	Grobstein (Clifford) - Science and the Unborn: Choosing Human Futures	3%
Grobstein (Clifford)	Science and the Unborn: Choosing Human Futures	Paper - By Subtopic	Grobstein (Clifford) - Science and the Unborn: Choosing Human Futures	4%
Grobstein (Clifford)	The Strategy of Life	Book - Cited	Grobstein (Clifford) - The Strategy of Life	4%
Grobstein (Clifford)	The Strategy of Life	Paper - By Subtopic	Grobstein (Clifford) - Strategy of Life	6%
Hains (Brigid) & Hains (Paul)	Aeon: 2019+	Paper - Referencing	Hains (Brigid) & Hains (Paul) - Aeon	Yes
Hains (Brigid) & Hains (Paul)	Aeon: A-B (& General)	Book - By Subtopic (via Paper By Subtopic)	Hains (Brigid) & Hains (Paul) - Aeon: A-B (& General)	100%
Hains (Brigid) & Hains (Paul)	Aeon: A-B (& General)	Book - Referencing (via Paper Referencing)	Bibliographical details to be supplied	100%
Hains (Brigid) & Hains (Paul)	Aeon: C-F	Book - By Subtopic (via Paper By Subtopic)	Hains (Brigid) & Hains (Paul) - Aeon: C-F	40%
Hains (Brigid) & Hains (Paul)	Aeon: G-K	Book - Cited (via Paper Cited)	Bibliographical details to be supplied	33%
Hains (Brigid) & Hains (Paul)	Aeon: L-P	Book - By Subtopic (via Paper By Subtopic)	Hains (Brigid) & Hains (Paul) - Aeon: L-P	37%
Hains (Brigid) & Hains (Paul)	Aeon: L-P	Book - Cited (via Paper Cited)	Bibliographical details to be supplied	37%
Hains (Brigid) & Hains (Paul)	Aeon: Q-S	Book - Cited (via Paper Cited)	Bibliographical details to be supplied	26%
Hanfling (Oswald), Ed.	Life and Meaning - A Reader	Book - By Subtopic	Hanfling (Oswald), Ed. - Life and Meaning - A Reader	No
Hershenov (David)	Review of Nancy Murphy's 'Bodies and Souls, or Spirited Bodies?'	Paper - Referencing	Religious Studies, 43:2, June 2007, 237-242	Yes
Jevons (F.R.)	The Biochemical Approach to Life	Book - Cited	Jevons (F.R.) - The Biochemical Approach to Life	No
Johnston (Mark)	Human Beings	Paper - Referencing	Journal of Philosophy, Volume 84, Issue 2 (Feb 1987), 59-83	Yes
Johnston (Mark)	Is Heaven a Place We Can Get To?	Paper - Referencing	Johnston (Mark) - Surviving Death, 2010	92%
Johnston (Mark)	Surviving Death	Book - Referencing (via Paper Referencing)	Bibliographical details to be supplied	20%
Kaag (John)	The greatest use of life	Paper - By Subtopic	Aeon, 01 October, 2018	33%
Kazez (Jean)	Life Doesn't Begin at Conception	Paper - Cited	The Philosophers' Magazine, 3rd November 2017	Yes
Lachmann (Michael) & Walker (Sara)	Life ≠ alive	Paper - By Subtopic	Aeon, 24 June, 2019	33%
Laqueur (Thomas)	Ghosts and ghouls haunt the living with a message about life	Paper - By Subtopic	Aeon, 11 January, 2017	Yes
Lemos (Noah)	Assessing Lives	Paper - Cited	Luper - The Cambridge Companion to Life and Death, 2014, Chapter 6	7%
Levy (Steven)	Artificial Life: The Quest for a New Creation	Book - Cited	Levy (Steven) - Artificial Life: The Quest for a New Creation	11%
Lizza (John)	Where's Waldo? The 'decapitation gambit' and the definition of death	Paper - By Subtopic	Journal of Medical Ethics, Vol. 37, No. 12 (December 2011), pp. 743-746	No
Luper (Steven)	Life's Meaning	Paper - Cited	Luper - The Cambridge Companion to Life and Death, 2014, Chapter 12	No
Luper (Steven)	The Cambridge Companion to Life and Death: Introduction	Paper - By Subtopic	Luper - The Cambridge Companion to Life and Death, 2014	42%
Luper (Steven), Ed.	The Cambridge Companion to Life and Death	Book - By Subtopic	Luper (Steven), Ed. - The Cambridge Companion to Life and Death	5%
Marsa (Linda)	The longevity gap	Paper - By Subtopic	Aeon, 02 July, 2014	Yes
Martin (Michael G.F.), Ed.	Mind - 113/450 (April 2004)	Book - Referencing (via Paper Referencing)	Bibliographical details to be supplied	6%
Maynard Smith (John)	The Problems of Biology	Book - By Subtopic	Maynard Smith (John) - The Problems of Biology	No
Maynard Smith (John)	The Problems of Biology	Paper - By Subtopic	Maynard Smith (John) - The Problems of Biology	No
McFadden (Johnjoe)	Life is quantum	Paper - Cited	Aeon, 29 October, 2014	Yes
McLaren (Ann)	Prelude to Embryogenesis	Paper - By Subtopic	CIBA Foundation - Human Embryo Research: Yes or No?	No
Medawar (Peter) & Medawar (Jean)	The Life Science: Current Ideas of Biology	Book - By Subtopic	Medawar (Peter) & Medawar (Jean) - The Life Science: Current Ideas of Biology	No
Moreland (J.P.) & Rae (Scott)	Body & Soul - Human Nature and the Crisis in Ethics	Book - Referenced	Moreland (J.P.) & Rae (Scott) - Body & Soul - Human Nature and the Crisis in Ethics	16%
Morioka (Masahiro), Ed	Nihilism and the Meaning of Life - A Philosophical Dialogue with James Tartaglia	Book - By Subtopic	Morioka (Masahiro), Ed - Nihilism and the Meaning of Life - A Philosophical Dialogue with James Tartaglia	1%
Morioka (Masahiro), Ed	Nihilism and the Meaning of Life - A Philosophical Dialogue with James Tartaglia	Paper - By Subtopic	Morioka (Masahiro), Ed - Nihilism and the Meaning of Life - A Philosophical Dialogue with James Tartaglia	1%
Morowitz (Harold J.) & Trefil (James)	The Facts of Life: Science and the Abortion Controversy	Book - By Subtopic	Morowitz (Harold J.) & Trefil (James) - The Facts of Life: Science and the Abortion Controversy	3%
Morowitz (Harold J.) & Trefil (James)	The Facts of Life: Science and the Abortion Controversy	Paper - By Subtopic	Morowitz (Harold J.) & Trefil (James) - The Facts of Life: Science and the Abortion Controversy	5%
Oderberg (David)	Synthetic Life and the Bruteness of Immanent Causation	Paper - Cited	E. Feser (ed.) Aristotle on Method and Metaphysics (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013): 206-35	12%
Ozanne (Charles)	The Life and Soul of Mortal Man: His Composition, Disintegration, and Resurrection	Book - Referenced	Ozanne (Charles) - The Life and Soul of Mortal Man: His Composition, Disintegration, and Resurrection	22%
Popper (Karl) & Eccles (John)	The Self and Its Brain	Book - Referenced	Popper (Karl) & Eccles (John) - The Self and Its Brain	3%
Pross (Addy)	Biology is Chemistry	Paper - By Subtopic	Pross (Addy) - What is Life?: How Chemistry Becomes Biology, Chapter 7	Yes
Pross (Addy)	Biology's Crisis of Identity	Paper - By Subtopic	Pross (Addy) - What is Life?: How Chemistry Becomes Biology, Chapter 6	Yes
Pross (Addy)	Life’s restlessness	Paper - By Subtopic	Aeon, 29 April, 2014	Yes
Pross (Addy)	Living Things are so Very Strange	Paper - By Subtopic	Pross (Addy) - What is Life?: How Chemistry Becomes Biology, Chapter 1	Yes
Pross (Addy)	Stability and Instability	Paper - By Subtopic	Pross (Addy) - What is Life?: How Chemistry Becomes Biology, Chapter 4	Yes
Pross (Addy)	The Knotty Origin of Life Problem	Paper - By Subtopic	Pross (Addy) - What is Life?: How Chemistry Becomes Biology, Chapter 5	Yes
Pross (Addy)	The Quest for a Theory of Life	Paper - By Subtopic	Pross (Addy) - What is Life?: How Chemistry Becomes Biology, Chapter 2	Yes
Pross (Addy)	Understanding 'Understanding'	Paper - By Subtopic	Pross (Addy) - What is Life?: How Chemistry Becomes Biology, Chapter 3	Yes
Pross (Addy)	What Is Life?	Paper - By Subtopic	Pross (Addy) - What is Life?: How Chemistry Becomes Biology, Chapter 8	Yes
Pross (Addy)	What is Life? How Chemistry Becomes Biology: Preface	Paper - By Subtopic	Pross (Addy) - What is Life?: How Chemistry Becomes Biology	Yes
Pross (Addy)	What is Life?: How Chemistry Becomes Biology	Book - Cited	Pross (Addy) - What is Life?: How Chemistry Becomes Biology	Yes
Ruse (Michael)	Does life have a purpose?	Paper - Cited	Aeon, 24 June, 2013	Yes
Schrodinger (Erwin)	What is Life?	Book - Cited	Schrodinger (Erwin) - What is Life?	6%
Sheldrake (Rupert)	A New Science of Life: The Hypothesis of Formative Causation	Book - By Subtopic	Sheldrake (Rupert) - A New Science of Life: The Hypothesis of Formative Causation	2%
Shipley (G.J.)	Review of Andy Clark's 'Natural-Born Cyborgs'	Paper - Referencing	Mind - 113/450 (April 2004)	Yes
Singer (Peter)	Rethinking Life & Death - The Collapse Our Traditional Ethics	Book - By Subtopic	Singer (Peter) - Rethinking Life & Death - The Collapse Our Traditional Ethics	1%
Skillings (Derek J.)	Life is not easily bounded	Paper - Cited	Aeon, 24 October, 2017	Yes
Smolin (Lee)	The Life of the Cosmos	Book - By Subtopic	Smolin (Lee) - The Life of the Cosmos	1%
Swinburne (Richard)	The Evolution of the Soul	Book - By Subtopic	Swinburne (Richard) - The Evolution of the Soul	No
Tegmark (Max)	Life 3.0: Being Human in the Age of Artificial Intelligence	Book - Cited	Tegmark (Max) - Life 3.0: Being Human in the Age of Artificial Intelligence	29%
Todman (Theo)	Thesis - Animation	Paper - By Subtopic		Yes
Todman (Theo)	Thesis - Life	Paper - By Subtopic		Yes
Tymieniecka (Anna-Teresa) & Zalewski (Zbigniew), Eds.	Life: The Human Being between Life and Death	Book - By Subtopic	Tymieniecka (Anna-Teresa) & Zalewski (Zbigniew), Eds. - Life: The Human Being between Life and Death	No
Tymieniecka (Anna-Teresa) & Zalewski (Zbigniew), Eds.	Life: The Human Being between Life and Death	Paper - By Subtopic	Tymieniecka (Anna-Teresa) & Zalewski (Zbigniew), Eds. - Life: The Human Being between Life and Death	No
Tymieniecka (Anna-Teresa), Ed.	The Origins of Life: The Primogenital Matrix Of Life And Its Context	Book - By Subtopic	Tymieniecka (Anna-Teresa), Ed. - The Origins of Life: The Primogenital Matrix Of Life And Its Context	No
Unamuno (Miguel De), Flitch (Crawford J. E.)	The Tragic Sense of Life	Book - By Subtopic	Unamuno (Miguel De), Flitch (Crawford J. E.) - The Tragic Sense of Life	6%
Unamuno (Miguel De), Flitch (Crawford J. E.)	The Tragic Sense of Life	Paper - By Subtopic	Unomono (Miguel De) - The Tragic Sense of Life	4%
Velleman (David)	Beyond Price: Papers On Life And Death	Book - By Subtopic	Velleman (David) - Beyond Price: Papers On Life And Death	9%
Velleman (David)	The Rights to a Life	Paper - By Subtopic	Written for a conference on “Life-Writing” at the Huntington Library, March 2012	25%
Warren (James)	The Symmetry Problem	Paper - By Subtopic	Luper - The Cambridge Companion to Life and Death, 2014, Chapter 10	7%
Williams (Bernard)	Types of Moral Argument Against Embryo Research	Paper - By Subtopic	CIBA Foundation - Human Embryo Research: Yes or No?	No
Wilson (Edward O.)	The Diversity of Life	Book - Cited	Wilson (Edward O.) - The Diversity of Life	No
Wilson (Jack)	Beyond Horses and Oak Trees: A New Theory of Individuation for Living Entities	Paper - Referencing	Wilson, Jack - Biological Individuality: The identity and Persistence of Living Entities; 1999, Chap. 1, pp. 1-21	Yes
Wilson (Jack)	Biological Individuality - The identity and Persistence of Living Entities	Book - Cited	Wilson (Jack) - Biological Individuality - The identity and Persistence of Living Entities	Yes
Wollheim (Richard)	Living	Paper - Cited	Wollheim - The Thread of Life, 1984, Chapter 1	Yes
Wollheim (Richard)	The Thread of Life	Book - Cited	Wollheim (Richard) - The Thread of Life	10%

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